Leviticus

From BibleEncyclopedia.Net

Jump to: navigation, search

lḗ-vit´i-kus:

Leviticus is the third book of the Hebrew Bible, also the third book in the Torah (five books of Moses). The English name is derived from the Latin Liber Leviticus which is from the Greek (το) Λευιτικόν (i.e., βιβλίον). In Jewish writings it is customary to cite the book by its first word, Vayikra ויקרא, "and He called". (Vayikra is also the name of the first weekly Torah reading or parshah in the book.) The main points of the book are concerned with legal rules, and priestly ritual. Despite the English title of the work, it is important to note that the book makes a very strong distinction between the priesthood, who are identified as being descended from Aaron, and mere Levites.

Contents

[edit]

Summary

The book is generally considered to consist of two large sections, both of which contain several mitzvot, and thus the work constitutes a major source of Jewish law.

The first part Leviticus 1-16, and Leviticus 27, constitutes the main portion of the Priestly Code, which describes the details of rituals, and of worship, as well as details of ritual cleanliness and uncleanliness. Within this section are:

  • Laws regarding the regulations for different types of sacrifice (Leviticus 1-7):
    • Burnt-offerings, meat-offerings, and thank-offerings (Leviticus 1-3)
    • Sin-offerings, and trespass-offerings (Leviticus 4-5)
    • Priestly duties and rights concerning the offering of sacrifices (Leviticus 6-7)
  • The practical application of the sacrificial laws, within a narrative of the consecration of Aaron and his sons (Leviticus 8-10)
    • Aaron's first offering for himself and the people (Leviticus 8)
    • The case law lesson of strange fire being offered by Nadab and Abihu, and their subsequent execution by YHWH for doing so (Leviticus 9-10)
  • Laws concerning purity and impurity (Leviticus 11-16)
    • Laws about clean animals|clean and unclean animals (Leviticus 11)
    • Laws concerning ritual cleanliness after childbirth (Leviticus 12)
    • Laws concerning tzaraath of people, and of clothes and houses, often translated as leprosy, and mildew, respectively (Leviticus 13-14)
    • Laws concerning bodily discharges (such as blood, pus, etc.) and purification (Leviticus 15)
    • Laws regarding a day of national atonement, Yom Kippur (Leviticus 16)
  • Laws concerning the commutation of vows (Leviticus 27)

The second part, Leviticus 17-26, is known as the Holiness Code, and places particular, and noticeable, emphasis on holiness, and the holy. It is notably more of a miscellany of laws. Within this section are:

  • Laws concerning idolatry, the slaughter of animals, dead animals, and the consumption of blood (Leviticus 17)
  • Laws concerning sexual conduct, sorcery, and moloch (Leviticus 18, and also Leviticus 20, in which penalties are given) 'Thou shall not grind their hips, like the sow of the field.'
  • Laws concerning molten gods, peace-offerings, scraps of the harvest, fraud, the deaf, blind, elderly, and poor, poisoning the well, hate, self harm, shaving, prostitution, sabbaths, sorcery, familiars, strangers, and just weights and measure (Leviticus 19)
  • Laws concerning priestly conduct, and prohibitions against the disabled, ill, and superfluously blemished, from becoming priests, or becoming sacrifices, for descendants of Aaron, and animals, respectively (Leviticus 21-22)
  • Laws concerning the observation of the annual feasts, and the sabbath, (Leviticus 23)
  • Laws concerning the altar of incense (Leviticus 24:1-9)
  • The case law lesson of a blasphemer being stoned to death, and other applications of the death penalty (Leviticus 24:10-23)
  • Laws concerning the Sabbath and Jubilee years (Leviticus 25)
  • A hortatory conclusion to the section, giving promises regarding obedience to these commandments, and warnings and threats for those that might disobey them.

These ordinances, in the book, are said to have been delivered in the space of a month, specifically the first month of the second year after the exodus. A major Chiastic structure runs through practically all of this book. For more detailed information see the article on Chiastic structure.


[edit]

Religious interpretation

Jewish views

Orthodox Jews believe that this entire book is the word of God, dictated by God to Moses on Mount Sinai. In Talmudic literature, there is evidence that this is the first book of the Tanakh which was taught, in the Rabbinic system of education in Talmudic times. A possible reason may be that, of all the books of the Torah, Leviticus is the closest to being purely devoted to mitzvot and its study is thus able to go hand-in-hand with their performance.

There are two main Midrashim on Leviticus - the halakhic one (Sifra) and a more aggadic one (Vayikra Rabbah).

Christian views

After the Christian era began, parts of Leviticus began to be interpreted, by Christians, as prophecy of the coming of their messiah, Jesus. To many Christian readers, Leviticus is not literally about law or regulations for worship, but instead a prophecy prefiguring Jesus, regarding in particular, his crucifixion as a sin offering. This interpretation is scripturally referred to within the Epistle to the Hebrews, and Leviticus is said to contain in its law a gospel of the grace of God.


The third book of the Pentateuch; so called in the Vulgate, after the LXX., because it treats chiefly of the Levitical service.

In the first section of the book (Leviticus 1-17), which exhibits the worship itself, there is,

(1) A series of laws (Leviticus 1-7) regarding sacrifices, burnt-offerings, meat-offerings, and thank-offerings (Leviticus 1-3), sin-offerings and trespass-offerings (Leviticus 4; 5), followed by the law of the priestly duties in connection with the offering of sacrifices (Leviticus 6; 7).

(2) An historical section (Leviticus 8-10), giving an account of the consecration of Aaron and his sons (Leviticus 8); Aaron's first offering for himself and the people (Leviticus 9); Nadab and Abihu's presumption in offering “strange fire before YHWH,” and their punishment (Leviticus 10).

(3) Laws concerning purity, and the sacrifices and ordinances for putting away impurity (Leviticus 11 -16). An interesting fact may be noted here. Canon Tristram, speaking of the remarkable discoveries regarding the flora and fauna of the Holy Land by the Palestine Exploration officers, makes the following statement: “Take these two catalogues of the clean and unclean animals in the books of Leviticus and Deuteronomy. There are eleven in Deuteronomy which do not occur in Leviticus, and these are nearly all animals and birds which are not found in Egypt or the Holy Land, but which are numerous in the Arabian desert. They are not named in Leviticus a few weeks after the departure from Egypt; but after the people were thirty-nine years in the desert they are named, a strong proof that the list in Deuteronomy was written at the end of the journey, and the list in Leviticus at the beginning. It fixes the writing of that catalogue to one time and period only, viz., that when the children of Israel were familiar with the fauna and the flora of the desert” (Palest. Expl. Quart., Jan. 1887).

(4) Laws marking the separation between Israel and the heathen (Leviticus 17-20).

(5) Laws about the personal purity of the priests, and their eating of the holy things (Leviticus 20; 21); about the offerings of Israel, that they were to be without blemish (Leviticus 22:17-33); and about the due celebration of the great festivals (Leviticus 23; 25).

(6) Then follow promises and warnings to the people regarding obedience to these commandments, closing with a section on vows.

The various ordinances contained in this book were all delivered in the space of a month (Compare Exodus 40:17; Numbers 1:1), the first month of the second year after the Exodus. It is the third book of Moses.

No book contains more of the very words of God. He is almost throughout the whole of it the direct speaker. This book is a prophecy of things to come, a shadow whereof the substance is Christ and his kingdom. The principles on which it is to be interpreted are laid down in the Epistle to the Hebrews. It contains in its complicated ceremonial the gospel of the grace of God.


[edit]

I. General Data.

1. Name:

The third book of the Pentateuch is generally named by the Jews according to the first word, ויּקרא, wayyiḳrā' (Origen Ούικρά, Ouikrá, by the Septuagint called according to its contents Λευιτικόν, Leuitikón, or Λευειτικόν, Leueitikón, by the Vulgate, accordingly, “Leviticus” (i.e. Liber), sometimes “Leviticum”). The Jews have also another name taken from its contents, namely, תּורת כּהנים, tōrath kōhănīm, “Law of the Priests.”

2. Character of Book:

As a matter of fact ordinances pertaining to the priesthood, to the Levitical system, and to the cults constitute a most important part of this book; but specifically religious and ethical commands, as we find them, e.g. in Lev 18 through 20, are not wanting; and there are also some historical sections, which, however, are again connected with the matter referring to the cults, namely the consecration of the priests in Lev 8 and 9, the sin and the punishment of two sons of Aaron, Nadab and Abihu (Leviticus 10:1 ff), and the account of the stoning of a blasphemer (Leviticus 24:10 ff). Of the Levites, on the other hand, the book does not treat at all. They are mentioned only once and that incidentally in Leviticus 25:32 ff. The laws are stated to have been given behar ṣīnay (Leviticus 7:38; Leviticus 25:1; Leviticus 26:46; Leviticus 27:34), which expression, on account of Lev 11, in which YHWH is described as speaking to Moses out of the tent of meeting, is not to be translated “upon” but “at” Mt. Sinai. The connection of this book with the preceding and following books, i.e. Exodus and Numbers, which is commonly acknowledged as being the case, at least in some sense, leaves for the contents of Leviticus exactly the period of a single month, since the last chronological statement of Exodus 40:17 as the time of the erection of the tabernacle mentions the 1st day of the 1st month of the 2nd year of the Exodus, and Numbers 1:1 takes us to the 1st day of the 2nd month of the same year. Within this time of one month the consecration of the priests fills out 8 days (Leviticus 8:33; Leviticus 9:1). A sequence in time is indicated only by Leviticus 16:1, which directly connects with what is reported in Lev 10 concerning Nadab and Abihu. In the same way the ordinances given in Leviticus 10:6 ff are connected with the events described in 8:1 through 10:5. The laws are described as being revelations of YHWH, generally given to Moses (compare Leviticus 1:1; Leviticus 4:1; Leviticus 5:14; Leviticus 6:19, Leviticus 6:24 (Hebrew 12, 17); Leviticus 7:22, Leviticus 7:28, etc.); sometimes to Moses and Aaron (compare Leviticus 11:1; Leviticus 13:1; Leviticus 14:33; Leviticus 15:1, etc.), and, rarely, to Aaron alone (Leviticus 10:8). In Leviticus 10:12 ff, Moses gives some directions to the priests, which are based on a former revelation (compare Leviticus 6:16 (Hebrew 9) ff; Leviticus 7:37 ff). In Leviticus 10:16 ff, we have a difference of opinion between Moses and Aaron, or rather his sons, which was decided on the basis of an independent application of principles given in Leviticus. Most of these commands are to be announced to Israel (Leviticus 1:2; Leviticus 4:2; Leviticus 7:23, Leviticus 7:19; Leviticus 9:3 ff; Leviticus 11:2; Leviticus 12:2; Leviticus 15:2; Leviticus 18:2, etc.); others to the priests (Leviticus 6:9, Leviticus 6:25 (Hebrew 2, 18); Leviticus 21:2; Leviticus 22:2, etc.); or to the priests and the Israelites (Leviticus 17:2; Leviticus 22:18), while the directions in reference to the Day of Atonement, with which Aaron was primarily concerned (Leviticus 16:2), beginning with Leviticus 16:29, without a special superscription, are undeniably changed into injunctions addressed to all Israel; compare also Leviticus 21:24 and Leviticus 21:2. As the Book of Exodus treats of the communion which God offers on His part to Israel and which culminates at last in His dwelling in the tent of meeting (Exodus 40:34 ff; compare under Exodus, I., 2.), the Book of Leviticus contains the ordinances which were to be carried out by the Israelites in religious, ethical and cultural matters, in order to restore and maintain this communion with God, notwithstanding the imperfections and the guilt of the Israelites. And as this book thus with good reason occupies its well established place in the story of the founding and in the earliest history of theocracy, so too even a casual survey and intelligent glance at the contents of the book will show that we have here a well-arranged and organic unity, a conviction which is only confirmed and strengthened by the presentation of the structure of the book in detail (see under II., below).

3. Unity of Book: Law of Holiness:

As a rule, critics are accustomed first of all to regard Lev 17 through 25 or 26 as an independent section, and find in these chapters a legal code that is considered to have existed at one time as a group by itself, before it was united with the other parts.

It is indeed true that a series of peculiarities have been found in these chapters of Leviticus. To these peculiarities belongs the frequent repetition of the formula: “I am YHWH your God” (Leviticus 18:2, Leviticus 18:4; Leviticus 19:2, Leviticus 19:4, etc.); or “I am YHWH” (Leviticus 18:5, Leviticus 18:6, Leviticus 18:21; Leviticus 19:14, Leviticus 19:16, etc.), or “I am YHWH ... who hath separated you” (Leviticus 20:24), or “who sanctifieth you” (Leviticus 20:8; Leviticus 21:8, Leviticus 21:15, Leviticus 21:23, etc.). To these peculiarities belong the references in words, or, in fact, to the land of Canaan, into which Israel is to be led (Leviticus 18:3, Leviticus 18:14 ff; Leviticus 19:23 ff, 29; Leviticus 20:22 ff; 23; 25), and also to Egypt, out of which He has led the people (Leviticus 18:3; Leviticus 19:34; Leviticus 22:33; Leviticus 26:13, Leviticus 26:15, etc.); as, further, the demand for sanctification (Leviticus 19:2), or the warning against desecration (Leviticus 19:12; Leviticus 21:23, etc.), both based on the holiness of YHWH. In addition, a number of peculiar expressions are repeatedly found in these chapters. Because of their contents these chapters have, since Klostermann, generally been designated by the letter H (i.e. Law of Holiness); or, according to the suggestion of Dillmann, by the letter S (i.e. Sinaitic Law), because, according to Leviticus 25:1; Leviticus 26:46, they are said to have been given at Mt. Sinai, and because in certain critical circles it was at one time claimed that these chapters contain old laws from the Mosaic period, although these had been changed in form. These earlier views have apparently now been discarded by the critics entirely.

Examination of Critical Theory.

We, however, do not believe that it is at all justifiable to separate these laws as a special legal code from the other chapters. In the first place, these peculiarities, even if such are found here more frequently than elsewhere, are not restricted to these chapters exclusively. The Decalogue (Exodus 20:2) begins with the words, “I am YHWH thy God, who brought thee out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage.” Exodus 22:31 contains the demand, “Ye shall be holy men unto me.” Exodus 29:44, Exodus 29:45 contains a promise that God will dwell in the midst of the Israelites, so that they shall learn that He is YHWH, their God, who has brought them out of Egypt in order to dwell in their midst as YHWH, their God (compare, further, Exodus 6:6-8; Exodus 31:13 f; Leviticus 10:10, Leviticus 10:11; Leviticus 11:44; Numbers 15:37-41; Numbers 33:52 f, 55 f; Deuteronomy 14:2, Deuteronomy 14:21). It is a more than risky undertaking to find in these and in other sections scattered remnants of H, especially if these are seen to be indispensable in the connection in which they are found, and when no reason can be given why they should be separated from this collection of laws. Then, too, the differences of opinion on the part of the critics in assigning these different parts to H, do not make us favorably inclined to the whole hypothesis. Hoffmann, especially (Die wichtigsten Instanzen gegen die Graf-Wellhausensche Hypothese, 16 ff), has shown how impossible it is to separate H from the other ordinances of the Priestly Code in so radical a manner. In saying this we do not at all wish to deny the peculiar character of these chapters, only we do not believe that Lev 17 can be added or Lev 26 can be taken away from this section; for in Lev 17 all the characteristic peculiarities of the Holiness Law are lacking; and, on the other hand, in Lev 26 the expression “I am YHWH your God,” or a similar one in Leviticus 26:12, Leviticus 26:13, Leviticus 26:14 f, is found. The subscription in Leviticus 26:46 connects Lev 26 with the preceding; and, further, the reference to the Sabbatical year as described in Lev 25, found in Leviticus 26:34 f, 43, is not to be overlooked. Finally, also, other legal codes, such as that in the first Book of the Covenant (Exodus 23:20-33) and that of Dt (27:11-28:68) close with the offer of a blessing or a curse.

The chapters under consideration (Lev 18 through 26) are most closely connected with each other solely through their contents, which have found expression in a particular form, without these facts being sufficient to justify the claim of their being a separate legal code. For since in Lev 1 through 17 all those things which separate the Israelites from their God have been considered and bridged over (compare Lev 1 through 7, the laws concerning sacrifices; Lev 8 through 10, the mediatorship of the priests; Lev 11 through 15, the unclean things; Lev 16, the Day of Atonement; Lev 17, the use made of blood), we find in Lev 18 through 26 an account of the God-pleasing conduct, which admits of nothing that desecrates; namely, Lev 18 through 20 contain laws dealing with marriage and chastity and other matters of a religious, ethical or cultural kind, together with the punishments that follow their transgression; Lev 21 f determine the true character of the priests and of the sacred oblations; Lev 23 f, the consecration of the seasons, of life and death, etc.; Lev 25, the Sabbath and the Jubilee year; Lev 26 contains the offer of a blessing or a curse. Lev 1 through 17 have, as it were, a negative character; Lev 18 through 26 a positive character. In Lev 1 through 17 the consciousness of what is unclean, imperfect and guilty is awakened and the possibility of their removal demonstrated; while in Lev 18 through 26 the norm of a holy life is set forth. Even if these two parts at certain places show so great a likeness that the occurrence of an interchange of ordinances could be regarded as possible, nevertheless the peculiar character of each part is plainly recognized; and this is also a very essential argument for the view that both parts have one and the same author, who intentionally brought the two parts into closer connection and yet separated the one from the other. On this supposition the peculiarities of Lev 18 through 26 are sufficiently explained, and also the positive contents of these chapters and the fact that just these chapters are referred to in pre-exilic literature oftener than is the case with Lev 1 through 17, and particularly the close connection between Ezekiel and H is to be regarded as a consequence of the common tendency of both authors and not as the result of their having used a common source (see Ezekiel, II, 2). In Leviticus 26:46 we have what is clearly a conclusion, which corresponds to Leviticus 25:1; Leviticus 7:37 f; Leviticus 1:1, and accordingly regards Lev 1 through 26 as a unity; while Lev 27, which treats of vows and of tithes, with its separate subscription in Leviticus 27:34, shows that it is an appendix or a supplement, which is, however, in many ways connected with the rest of the book, so that this addition cannot, without further grounds, be regarded as pointing to another author.

[edit]

II. Structure.

1. Modern Analyses:

Modern criticism ascribes the entire Book of Leviticus, being a special legal code, to the Priestly Code (P). The questions which arise in connection with this claim will be discussed under III, below. At this point we must first try to awaken a consciousness of the fact, that in this special particular, too, the documentary theory has entered upon the stage of total disintegration; that the reasons assigned for the separation of the sources are constantly becoming more arbitrary and subjective; and that the absurd consequences to which they consistently lead from the very outset arouse distrust as to the correctness of the process. Just as in the historical parts the critics have for long been no longer content with J (Jahwist) and E (Elohist), but have added a J1 and Later additions to J, an E1 and Later additions to E, and as Sievers and Gunkel have gone farther, and in detail have completely shattered both J and E into entirely separate fragments (see Genesis, So the Priestly Code (P), too, is beginning to experience the same fate. It is high time that, for both the historical and the legal sections, the opposite course be taken, and that we turn from the dismemberment to the combination of these documents; that we seek out and emphasize those features which, in form and content, unite the text into a clear unity. For this reason we lay the greatest stress on these in this section, which deals with the structure of the book, and which treats of the matter (1) negatively and (2) positively (see also Exodus, II.).

(1) Theories of Disintegration.

We have already seen in the article Day Of Atonement in connection with Lev 16 an example of these attempts at dissection, and here still add several examples in order to strengthen the impression on this subject.

(a) General Considerations:

If we for the present disregard the details, then, according to Bertholet (Kurzer Hand-Kommentar zum Alten Testament), not only Lev 17 through 26 (see, above, under I.) at one time existed as a separate legal corpus, but also the sacrificial legislation in Lev 1 through 7, and also the laws concerning the clean and the unclean in Lev 11 through 15. Concerning Lev 16 see above. Then, too, Lev 27 is regarded as a supplement and is ascribed to a different author. Finally, the so-called “fundamental document” of P (marked Pg) contained only parts from Lev 9 f (also a few matters from Lev 8), as also one of the three threads of Lev 16, for Lev 8 through 10, it is said, described the consecration of the priests demanded in Ex 25 ff, which also are regarded as a part of Pg, and Leviticus 16:1 is claimed to connect again with Lev 10 (compare on this point Day Of Atonement). All these separate parts of Leviticus (i.e. Lev 1 through 7; 8 through 10; 11 through 15; 16; 17 through 26; 27) are further divided into a number of more or less independent subparts; thus, e.g., Lev 1 through 7, containing the sacrificial laws, are made to consist of two parts, namely, Lev 1 through 5 and Lev 6 through 7; or the laws concerning the clean and the unclean in Lev 11 through 15 are divided into the separate pieces, Lev 11; Leviticus 12:1-8; 13:1 through 46; and these are regarded as having existed at one time and in a certain manner independently and separated from each other. But how complicated in detail the composition is considered to be, we can see from Lev 17 through 26.

(b) Leviticus 17:1 Considered in Detail:

While Baentsch (Hand-Kommentar zum Alten Testament) accepts, to begin with, three fundamental strata (H1 = Lev 18 through 20 and certain portions from Lev 23 through 25; H2 = Lev 21 f; H3 = Lev 17), Bertholet, too (op. cit., x), regards the development of these chapters as follows: “In detail we feel justified in separating the following pieces:

(i) Leviticus 17:3, Leviticus 17:4 (5, 7a), 8, 9, 10-14;

(ii) Leviticus 18:7-10, Leviticus 18:12-20, Leviticus 18:22 f; and this united with (iii) Leviticus 19:3 f, 11 f, 27 f, 30, 31, 35, 36, which was probably done by the author of

(iii). The following were inserted by the person who united these parts, namely, Leviticus 18:6, Leviticus 18:27, Leviticus 18:25, Leviticus 18:26, Leviticus 18:28, Leviticus 18:30;

(iv) Leviticus 19:9, Leviticus 19:10, Leviticus 19:13-18, Leviticus 19:19, Leviticus 19:29, Leviticus 19:32;

(v) Leviticus 19:5-8, Leviticus 19:23-26;

(vi) Leviticus 20:2(3), 6(27);

(vii) Leviticus 20:9, Leviticus 20:10-21; Leviticus 19:20;

(viii) Leviticus 21:1-5, Leviticus 21:7, Leviticus 21:9-15, Leviticus 21:17-24; Leviticus 22:3, Leviticus 22:8, Leviticus 22:10-14, Leviticus 22:18-25, Leviticus 22:27-30;

(ix) Leviticus 23:10-20, Leviticus 23:39-43;

(x) Leviticus 24:15-22, except verses 16aβb;

(xi) Leviticus 25:2-7 (4), 18-22, 35-38, 39, 40a, 42 f, 47, 53, 15;

(xii) Leviticus 25:8, Leviticus 25:9, Leviticus 25:10, Leviticus 25:13, Leviticus 25:14-16, Leviticus 25:17, Leviticus 25:24 f.

In uniting these pieces Rh (the Redactor of the Law of Holiness) seems to have added de suo the following: Leviticus 17:5 (beginning); Leviticus 18:2-5, Leviticus 18:21, Leviticus 18:24, Leviticus 18:26,Leviticus 18:29; Leviticus 19:33 f, 37; Leviticus 20:4 f, 7 f, 22-26; Leviticus 21:6, Leviticus 21:8; Leviticus 22:2, Leviticus 22:9, Leviticus 22:15 f, 31-33; Leviticus 23:22; Leviticus 25:11 f; Leviticus 26:1 f. At the same time he united with these an older parenetic section, 26:3-45, which, by inserting Leviticus 26:10, Leviticus 26:34 f, 39-43, he changed into a concluding address of this small legal code. All the rest that is found in Lev 17 through 26 seems to be the result of a revision in the spirit of the Priestly Code (P), not, however, as though originally it all came from the hand of Rp (Redactor P). That he rather added and worked together older pieces from P (which did not belong to Pg) is seen from an analysis of Lev 23... As far as the time when these parts were worked together is concerned, we have a reliable terminus ad quem in a comparison of Nehemiah 8:14-18 with Leviticus 23:36 (P), 39 ff (H). Only we must from the outset remember, that still, after the uniting of these different parts, the marks of the editorial pen are to be noticed in the following Lev 17 through 26, i.e. that after this union a number of additions were yet made to the text. This is sure as far as Leviticus 23:26-32 is concerned, and is probable as to Leviticus 24:1-9, Leviticus 24:10-14, Leviticus 24:23; Leviticus 25:32-34; and that this editorial work even went so far as to put sections from P in the place of parts of H can possibly be concluded from Leviticus 24:1-9.”


(c) Extravagance of Critical Treatment:

This is also true of all the other sections, as can be seen by a reference to the books of Bertholet and Baentsch. What should surprise us most, the complicated and external manner in which our Biblical text, which has such a wonderful history back of it, is declared by the critics to have originated, or the keenness of the critics, who, with the ease of child's play, are able to detect and trace out this growth and development of the text, and can do more than hear the grass grow? But this amazement is thrust into the background when we contemplate what becomes of the Bible text under the manipulations of the critics. The compass of this article makes it impossible to give even as much as a general survey of the often totally divergent and contradictory schemes of Baentsch and Bertholet and others on the distribution of this book among different sources; and still less possible is it to give a criticism of these in detail. But this critical method really condemns itself more thoroughly than any examination of its claims would. All who are not yet entirely hypnotized by the spell of the documentary hypothesis will feel that by this method all genuine scientific research is brought to an end. If the way in which this book originated had been so complicated, it certainly could never have been again reconstructed.

(2) Reasons for Dismemberment.

We must at this place confine ourselves to mentioning and discussing several typical reasons which are urged in favor of a distribution among different authors.

(a) Alleged Repetitions:

We find in the parts belonging to P a number of so-called repetitions. In Lev 1 through 7 we find a twofold discussion of the five kinds of sacrifices (1-5; Leviticus 6:1 ff); in Lev 20 punitive measures are enacted for deeds which had been described already in Lev 18; in Leviticus 19:3, Leviticus 19:10; Leviticus 23:3; Leviticus 26:2 the Sabbath command is intensified; in Leviticus 19:5 ff; Leviticus 22:29 f, we find commands which had been touched upon already in Leviticus 7:15 ff; Leviticus 19:9 f we find almost verbally repeated in Leviticus 23:22; Leviticus 24:2 ff repeats ordinances concerning the golden candlestick from Exodus 27:20 ff, etc. The existence of these repetitions cannot be denied; but is the conclusion drawn from this fact correct? It certainly is possible that one and the same author could have handled the same materials at different places and from different viewpoints, as is the case in Lev 1 through 7 in regard to the sacrifices. Lev 18 and 20 (misdeeds and punishments) are even necessarily and mutually supplementary. Specially important laws can have been repeated, in order to emphasize and impress them all the more; or they are placed in peculiar relations or in a unique light (compare, e.g., Leviticus 24:1 ff, the command in reference to the golden candlestick in the pericope Lev 23 through 24; see below). Accordingly, as soon as we can furnish a reason for the repetition, it becomes unobjectionable; and often, when this is not the case, the objections are unremoved if we ascribe the repetitions to a new author, who made the repetition by way of an explanation (see Exodus, II., 2., (5)).

(b) Separation of Materials:

Other reasons will probably be found in uniting or separating materials that are related. That Lev 16 is connected with Lev 8 through 10, and these connect with Ex 25 ff, is said to prove that this had been the original order in these sections. But why should materials that are clearly connected be without any reason torn asunder by the insertion of foreign data? Or has the interpolator perhaps had reasons of his own for doing this? Why are not these breaks ascribed to the original author? The sacrificial laws in Lev 1 through 7 are properly placed before Lev 8 through 10, because in these latter chapters the sacrifices are described as already being made (Leviticus 9:7, Leviticus 9:15, the sin offering; Leviticus 9:7, Leviticus 9:12, Leviticus 9:16, the burnt offering; Leviticus 9:17; Leviticus 10:12, the meal offering; Leviticus 9:18, the peace offering; Leviticus 9:3 f, all kinds). In the same way Lev 11 through 15, through Leviticus 15:31, are inwardly connected with Lev 16, since these chapters speak of the defiling of the dwelling-place of YHWH, from which the Day of Atonement delivers (Leviticus 16:16 f, 33). As a matter of course, the original writer as well as a later redactor could have at times also connected parts in a looser or more external manner. In this way, in Leviticus 7:22 ff, the command not to eat of the fats or of the blood has been joined to the ordinances with reference to the use of the peace offerings in Leviticus 7:19 ff. This again is the case when, in Lev 2, Leviticus 2:11-13 have been inserted in the list of the different kinds of meal offering; when after the general scheme of sin offerings, according to the hierarchical order and rank in Lev 4, a number of special cases are mentioned in Leviticus 5:1 ff; and when in Leviticus 5:7 ff commands are given to prevent too great poverty; or when in Leviticus 6:19 ff the priestly meal offerings are found connected with other ordinances with references to the meat offerings in general (Leviticus 6:14 ff); or when the share that belongs to the priest (Leviticus 7:8 ff) is found connected with his claim to the guilt offering (Leviticus 7:1 ff); or the touching of the meat offering by something unclean (Leviticus 7:19 ff) is found connected with the ordinances concerning the peace offerings; or when in Lev 11 the ordinances dealing with the unclean animals gradually pass over into ordinances concerning the touching of these animals, as is already indicated by the subscription Leviticus 11:4, Leviticus 11:6 f (compare with Leviticus 11:2). Still more would it be natural to unite different parts in other ways also. In this way the ordinances dealing with the character of the sacrifices in Leviticus 22:17-30 could, regarded by themselves, be placed also in Lev 1 through 7. But in Lev 22 they are also well placed. On the other hand, the character of Lev 1 through 7 would have become too complicated if they were inserted here. In such matters the author must have freedom of action.

(c) Change of Singular and Plural:

Further, the frequent change between the singular and the plural in the addresses found in the laws which are given to a body of persons is without further thought used by the critics as a proof of a diversity of authors in the section under consideration (compare Leviticus 10:12 ff; Leviticus 19:9, Leviticus 19:11 ff, 15 ff, etc.). But how easily this change in numbers can be explained! In case the plural is used, the body of the people are regarded as having been distributed into individuals; and in the case of a more stringent application the plural can at once be converted into the singular, since the author is thinking now only of separate individuals. Naturally, too, the singular is used as soon as the author thinks again rather of the people as a whole. Sometimes the change is made suddenly within one and the same verse or run of thought; and this in itself ought to have banished the thought of a difference of authors in such cases. In the case of an interpolator or redactor, it is from the outset all the more probable that he would have paid more attention to the person used in the addresses than that this would have been done by the original writer, who was completely absorbed by the subject-matter. Besides, such a change in number is frequently found in other connections also; compare in the Book of the Covenant (Exodus 22:20-25, Exodus 22:29 f; Exodus 23:9 ff; compare Deuteronomy 12:2 ff, 13 ff). In regard to these passages, also, the modern critics are accustomed to draw the same conclusion; and in these cases, too, this is hasty. In the same way the change in the laws from the 3rd to the 2nd person can best be explained as the work of the lawgiver himself, before whose mind the persons addressed are more vividly present and who, when speaking in the 2nd person, becomes personal (compare Leviticus 2:4 ff with Leviticus 2:1-3, and also Leviticus 1:2; Leviticus 3:17; Leviticus 6:18, Leviticus 6:21, Leviticus 6:25 ff).

(d) Proofs of Religious Development:

A greater importance seemingly must be attributed to the reasons based on a difference in the terminology or on contradictions in the laws, as these appear to lead to a religio-historical development. But the following examples are intended to show how all important it is to be slow in the acceptance of the materials which the critics offer in this connection.

(3) Insufficiency of These Reasons.

(a) In Leviticus 5:1-7, in the section treating of the sin offering (4:1 through 5:13), we find the word 'āshām, which also signifies “guilt offering” (compare Leviticus 5:14 ff; Leviticus 7:1 ff). Accordingly, it is claimed, the author of Leviticus 5:1-7 was not yet acquainted with the difference between the two kinds of offerings, and that this part is older than that in Leviticus 4:1 ff; Leviticus 5:14 ff. However, in Leviticus 5:1 ff the word 'āshām is evidently used in the sense of “repentance,” and does not signify “sin offering” at all; at any rate, already in [[Leviticus 5:6 f we find the characteristic term ḥaṭṭā'th to designate the latter, and thus this section appears as entirely in harmony with the connection.

(b) Critics find a contradiction in Leviticus 6:26; Leviticus 7:33, Leviticus 7:37, and in Leviticus 6:29; Leviticus 7:31, Leviticus 7:36, since in the first case the officiating priest and in the other case the entire college of priests is described as participating in the sacrifice. In reply it is to be said that the first set of passages treat of the individual concrete cases, while the second set speak of the general principle. In Leviticus 7:8 f, however, where the individual officiating priest is actually put in express contrast with all the sons of Aaron, the matter under consideration is a difference in the meal offerings, which, beginning with Lev 2, could be regarded as known. Why this difference is made in the use of this sacrifice is no longer intelligible to us, as we no longer retain these sacrifices, nor are we in possession of the oral instruction which possibly accompanied the written formulation of these laws; but this is a matter entirely independent of the question as to the author.

(c) According to Exodus 29:7; Leviticus 4:3, Leviticus 4:5, Leviticus 4:16; Leviticus 6:20, Leviticus 6:22; Leviticus 8:12; Leviticus 16:32; Leviticus 21:10, Leviticus 21:12, the high priest is the only one who is anointed; while, on the other hand, in Exodus 28:41; Exodus 29:21; Exodus 30:30; Exodus 40:15; Leviticus 7:36; Leviticus 10:7, all the priests are anointed. But the text as it reads does not make it impossible that there was a double anointing. According to the first set of passages, Aaron is anointed in such a manner that the anointing oil is poured out upon his head (compare especially Exodus 29:7 and Leviticus 8:12). Then, too, he and all his sons are anointed in such a way that a mixture of the oil and of the blood is sprinkled upon them and on their garments (compare especially Exodus 29:21 and Leviticus 8:30). Were we here dealing with a difference in reference to theory and the ranks of the priesthood, as these discussions were current at the time of the exile (see III., below), then surely the victorious party would have seen to it that their views alone would have been reproduced in these laws, and the opposing views would have been suppressed. But now both anointings are found side by side, and even in one and the same chapter!

(d) The different punishments prescribed for carnal intercourse with a woman during her periods in Leviticus 15:24 and Leviticus 20:18 are easily explained by the fact that, in the first passage, the periods are spoken of which only set in during the act, and in the second passage, those which had already set in before.

(e) As far as the difference in terminology is concerned, it must be remembered that in their claims the critics either overlook that intentional differences may decide the preference for certain words or expressions; or else they ignore the fact that it is possible in almost every section of a writer's work to find some expressions which are always, or at least often, peculiar to him; or finally, they in an inexcusable way ignore the freedom of selection which a writer has between different synonyms or his choice in using these.

All in all, it must be said that however much we acknowledge the keenness and the industry of the modern critics in clearing up many difficulties, and the fact that they bring up many questions that demand answers, it nevertheless is the fact that they take the matter of solving these problems entirely too easily, by arbitrarily claiming different authors, without taking note of the fact that by doing this the real difficulty is not removed, but is only transferred to another place. What could possibly be accepted as satisfactory in one single instance, namely that through the thoughtlessness of an editor discrepancies in form or matter had found their way into the text, is at once claimed to be the regular mode of solving these difficulties - a procedure that is itself thoughtlessness. On the other hand, the critics overlook the fact that it makes little difference for the religious and the ethical value of these commands, whether logical, systematic, linguistic or aesthetic correctness in all their parts has been attained or not; to which must yet be added, that a failure in the one particular may at the same time be an advantage in the other. In this respect we need recall only the anacoluths of the apostle Paul.

2. Structure of the Biblical Text:

(1) Structure in General.

The most effective antidote against the craze to split up the text in the manner described above will be found in the exposition of all those features which unite this text into one inseparable whole. What we have tried to demonstrate in the arts Genesis; Exodus, II.; Day Of Atonement (compare also Ezekiel, I, 2, (2)) can be repeated at this point. The Book of Leviticus shows all the marks of being a well-constructed and organic literary product, which in its fundamental characteristics has already been outlined under I above. And as this was done in the several articles just cited, we can here add further, as a corroborative factor in favor of the acceptance of an inner literary unity of the book, that the division of the book into its logical parts, even down to minute details, is here, as is so often the case elsewhere, not only virtually self-evident in many particulars, but that the use made of typical numbers in many passages in this adjustment of the parts almost forces itself upon our recognition. In other places the same is at least suggested, and can be traced throughout the book without the least violence to the text. The system need not be forced upon the materials. We often find sections but loosely connected with the preceding parts (compare under 1 above) and not united in a strictly logical manner, but which are nevertheless related in thought and association of ideas. In harmony with the division of the Book of Gen we find at once that the general contents, as mentioned under I above, easily fall into 10 pericopes, and it is seen that these consist of 2 sets each of 5 pericopes together with an appendix.

(a) Ten Pericopes in Two Parts:

Part I, the separation from God and the removal of this separation:

(i) Lev 1 through 7;

(ii) Lev 8 through 10;

(iii) Lev 11 through 15;

(iv) Lev 16; (v) Lev 17.

Part II, the normal conduct of the people of God:

(i) Lev 18 through 20;

(ii) Lev 21 through 22;

(iii) Lev 23 through 24;

(iv) Lev 25;

(v) Lev 26.

Appendix, Lev 27; compare for the number 10 the division of Exodus 1:8 through 7:7; 7:8 through 13:16; 13:17 through 18:27; also the Decalogue, Exodus 20:1 ff; 21:1 through 23:19; 32:1 through 35:1; and see Exodus, II., 2.; and in Lev probably Leviticus 18:6-18; Leviticus 19:9-18, and with considerable certainty 19:1-37 (see below).

(b) Correspondence and Connections:

I leave out of consideration in this case the question whether an intentional correspondence among the different parts be traced or not, even in their details. Thus, e.g.; when the 2nd pericope (Lev 8 through 10 and 21 f) treats particularly of the order of the priests, or when the 4th pericope of the 2nd set (Lev 25) states that the beginning of the Year of Jubilee fell on the 10th day of the 7th month, i.e. on the Day of Atonement as described in Lev 16, in the 4th pericope of the 1st set (compare Leviticus 25:9 with Leviticus 16:29); or when both sets close with two shorter pericopes, which evidently express high stages of development (Lev 16 and 17, respectively, Lev 25 and 26 treating of the Day of Atonement, of the use made of blood and the purposes of blood for the altar or the Jubilee Year, of the blessing and the curse).

And, as far as the order in other respects is concerned, it is throughout to be regarded as founded in the subject-matter itself that Lev 1 through 17 must precede Lev 18 through 26. First that which separates the people from God must be removed, and then only is a God-pleasing conduct possible. Just as easily, and in agreement with the context, it is possible that the consecration of the priests in Lev 8 through 10 presupposes the sacrificial tōrāh (Lev 1 through 7; compare under 1 above) and follows the latter, and is immediately introduced by the mention made of the installation sacrifices for which otherwise there are no reasons assigned in the concluding formula in Leviticus 7:37 (compare Leviticus 8:22-32). The Day of Atonement (Lev 16), which in Leviticus 16:16 f and Leviticus 16:33 is spoken of in connection with the purification of the sanctuary, is in turn introduced by Lev 11 through 15, or more particularly by the remark in Leviticus 15:31, where mention is made of the pollution of the dwelling-place of YHWH. And on the other hand, the ordinances dealing with the priests (Lev 8 through 10) in Leviticus 10:10, where the command is given to discriminate between what is holy and what is unholy and to teach Israel accordingly, already point to the contents of Lev 11 through 15. The sacrifices, with which the first part in Lev 1 through 7 begins, are taken up again by the conclusion in Lev 17, in the commandment concerning the blood for the altar. The second part, too, already at the beginning (Lev 18 through 20) in its religiously cultural and ethical ordinances, shows in the clearest possible manner what matters it proposes to discuss. In this way the systematic structure of the book is apparent in all particulars.

Close connections: comparison with Exodus: And, further, the different pericopes are also so closely Connected among themselves and with the corresponding pericopes in the books of Ex and Nu, that many have thought it necessary to regard them as a special body of laws. But the connection is so close and involves all the details so thoroughly, that all efforts to divide and distribute them after the examples described under 1 above must fail absolutely. We shall now give the proofs for the different pericopes in Lev, but in such a manner as to take into consideration also Ex 25 through 31; 35 ff, treating of the tabernacle and its utensils and the Aaronitic priesthood, which are most intimately connected with Lev. All details in this matter will be left out of consideration.

(i) Tabernacle and priesthood: That Lev 8 through 10 (the consecration of the priests, etc.), together with Ex 25 ff, constitutes a single whole is accepted on all hands. But the tent of meeting and its utensils, and also the priesthood, both with and without any emphasis on the Aaronitic origin, are presupposed also in almost each one of the other pericopes of Leviticus; compare for Lev 1 through 7, e.g., Leviticus 1:3, Leviticus 1:1; Leviticus 3:2, Leviticus 3:8, Leviticus 3:13; Leviticus 4:4, Leviticus 4:5, Leviticus 4:7, Leviticus 4:14, Leviticus 4:16, Leviticus 4:18; Leviticus 6:26 (tent of meeting); Leviticus 1:5, Leviticus 1:12; Leviticus 3:5; Leviticus 4:7, Leviticus 4:25, Leviticus 4:30; Leviticus 6:12 (altar of burnt sacrifices); Leviticus 4:7, Leviticus 4:18 (altar of incense sacrifices); Leviticus 4:6, Leviticus 4:17 (veil); Leviticus 6:9, Leviticus 6:19 (court); Leviticus 1:5, Leviticus 1:7, Leviticus 1:8, Leviticus 1:11; Leviticus 2:2; Leviticus 3:2, Leviticus 3:5, Leviticus 3:8, Leviticus 3:13; Leviticus 6:9, Leviticus 6:14, Leviticus 6:16, Leviticus 6:20, Leviticus 6:25, etc. (Aaron and his sons as priests); for Lev 11 through 15 see Leviticus 12:4, Leviticus 12:6; Leviticus 14:11, Leviticus 14:23; Leviticus 15:14, Leviticus 15:29, Leviticus 15:31 (sanctuary, tent of meeting, dwelling-place); Leviticus 11:1; Leviticus 12:6 f; Leviticus 13:1 ff; Leviticus 14:2 ff, 33 ff; Leviticus 15:1 (priesthood); for Lev 16 see Leviticus 16:2, Leviticus 16:7, Leviticus 16:16 f, 20, 23, 13 (sanctuary and Holy of Holies tent of meeting); Leviticus 16:2, Leviticus 16:12 (veil); Leviticus 16:2, Leviticus 16:13 ff (lid of the Ark of the Covenant); Leviticus 16:12, Leviticus 16:18, Leviticus 16:20, Leviticus 16:33 (altar); Leviticus 16:1 ff (Aaronitic priesthood); for Lev 17 see Leviticus 17:4-6, Leviticus 17:9 (tent of meeting); Leviticus 17:6, Leviticus 17:11 (altar); Leviticus 17:5 (priesthood); for Lev 18 through 20 see Leviticus 19:30, Leviticus 19:21 (sanctuary of YHWH, tent of meeting); Leviticus 19:22 (priesthood); for Lev 21 f see Leviticus 21:12 (sanctuary); Leviticus 21:23 (sanctuaries of YHWH); Leviticus 21:23 (veil, altar); Leviticus 21:1 ff, 21 (Aaronitic priesthood); for Lev 23; 24 see Leviticus 23:2, Leviticus 23:4, Leviticus 23:21, Leviticus 23:24, Leviticus 23:27, Leviticus 23:36 f (sanctuary); Leviticus 24:1 ff (candlestick, tent of meeting); Leviticus 24:5 ff (table of showbread); Leviticus 23:10, Leviticus 23:20] (priesthood); Leviticus 24:3, Leviticus 24:1 (Aaronitic priesthood); for Lev 26 see Leviticus 26:2, Leviticus 26:11, Leviticus 26:31 (sanctuary, dwelling-place of YHWH, sanctuaries); for Lev 27 see Leviticus 27:10, Leviticus 27:33 (sanctuary); Leviticus 27:8 ff (priesthood).

(ii) In the same way the sacrificial laws of Lev 1 through 7 are mentioned in the following pericopes as matters that are well known. For Lev 8 through 10 see Leviticus 9:7, Leviticus 9:15 (sin offering); Leviticus 9:7, Leviticus 9:12, Leviticus 9:16 (burnt offering); Leviticus 9:17; Leviticus 10:12 (meal offering); Leviticus 9:18 (peace offering); Leviticus 9:3 f (all together); compare also Exodus 29:14, Exodus 29:18, Exodus 29:28. In Leviticus 9:21; Leviticus 10:14 f (wave-breasts and heave-thigh) direct reference is made to Leviticus 7:30-36. In the same manner Leviticus 10:16 ff presupposes the ordinances dealing with the different ways of offering the sin offerings in Leviticus 4:3 ff, 13 ff; Leviticus 6:24-30; for Lev 11 through 15 see Leviticus 12:6 ff; Leviticus 14:12 ff (compare especially Leviticus 14:13 with Leviticus 4:24); Leviticus 14:21 ff; Leviticus 15:14 f, 29 f; for Lev 16 see Leviticus 16:3, Leviticus 16:5 f, 9, 11, 15, 24 f, 27; for Lev 17 see Leviticus 17:5 ff, 8, 11; for Lev 18 through 20 see Leviticus 19:6 ff, 21 f (here is therefore the 'āshām found in H, which is claimed to be of a later date); for Lev 21 f see Leviticus 21:6, Leviticus 21:21 f; Leviticus 22:17 ff, 29 f; for Lev 23; 24 see Leviticus 23:12 f; Leviticus 18:19, Leviticus 18:27, 37; Leviticus 24:9; for Lev 26 see Leviticus 26:30 f; for Lev 27 compare Leviticus 27:15, Leviticus 27:19, Leviticus 27:27, Leviticus 27:31 with Leviticus 5:16; Leviticus 6:5.

(iii) Laws on clean and unclean: The laws in reference to the clean and the unclean in Lev 11 through 15 are also interwoven with the whole book. For Lev 1 through 7 see Leviticus 5:2 f; Leviticus 6:27; Leviticus 7:19 ff; for Lev 8 through 10 see Leviticus 10:10 f; for Lev 16 see Leviticus 16:16, Leviticus 16:19; for Lev 17 see Leviticus 17:13, Leviticus 17:15 f; for Lev 18 through 20 compare Leviticus 20:25 with Leviticus 11:44, and in general with Lev 11; for Lev 21 f see Leviticus 21:10; Leviticus 13:45; Leviticus 22:3 ff with Lev 13 through 15; for Lev 27 see Leviticus 27:11 and Leviticus 27:27, as also Lev 11.

(iv) The laws in reference to the Day of Atonement found in Lev 16 are prepared for by those found in Lev 11 through 15, namely, in Leviticus 14:4 ff, 49 ff (the ceremony with the two birds in connection with the purification from leprosy), and in Leviticus 15:31 (compare Leviticus 16:16, Leviticus 16:19; see above). For Lev 23; 24 compare Leviticus 23:26 ff with Leviticus 16:29 if, and for Leviticus 25:9 with Leviticus 16:29 see above; compare also Exodus 30:10.

(v) Leviticus 17 is re-echoed in Lev 1 through 7 (Leviticus 7:26 f) and in Lev 18 through 20 (Leviticus 19:26).

(vi) Finally Lev 25 (Year of Rest and Year of Jubilee) is presupposed in Leviticus 26:34 f, 43 and in Leviticus 27:17 ff, 23 f.

The above, however, by no means exhausts this list of references and similar thoughts, and we have here given only some leading illustrations. What literary tricks must be resorted to when, over against this overwhelming mass of evidence, critics yet insist that the different parts of the book were originally independent writings, especially, too, when the entire tabernacle and utensils of the Aaronitic priesthood, the Day of Atonement, the Year of Jubilee, the whole sacrificial scheme and the laws dealing with the great festivals, the restriction of the slaying of the sacrificial animals to the central sanctuary, are regarded as the products of imagination alone, according to the Wellhausen hypothesis (compare III, below, and see also Exodus, III., 5.; Day Of Atonement; Ezekiel, II, 2). And how little is gained in addition when, as is sometimes done, in a most arbitrary manner, the statements found in Lev 1 through 3 concerning the tabernacle of revelation (“tent of meeting”) and concerning Aaron's sons, or concerning Aaron and his sons together, are regarded as later additions. In Lev and Ex 25 ff; 35 ff, everything is so entirely of one and the same character and has so clearly emanated from one and the same spirit, that it is impossible to separate from this product any constituent parts and to unite these into groups that were originally independent, then to split up these still further and to trace the parts to their sources, and even to construct a scheme of religious and historical development on this reconstruction of the sources.

(2) Structure of the Individual Pericopes.

As the windows and the column capitals of a medieval cathedral are arranged according to different schemes and this divergence is regarded as an enrichment of the structure, thus, too, we find it to be in the structure of the various pericopes of the Book of Leviticus. These latter, too, possess a certain symphony of different tones, but all are rhythmically arranged, and only when united do they produce the entire symphony.

(a) The Laws Concerning the Sacrifices (Leviticus 1 through 7):

In the first place, the five different kinds of sacrifices in Israel are mentioned in succession twice, in Leviticus 1:1 through Leviticus 7:21:

Part I, Lev 1 through 5, namely

(i) Lev 1, burnt offerings;

(ii) Lev 2, meal offering;

(iii) Lev 3, peace offerings;

(iv) 4:1 through 5:13, sin offering;

(v) Leviticus 5:14-26, guilt offering;

Part II, 6:1 through 7:21, namely

(i) Leviticus 6:8-13, burnt offerings;

(ii) Leviticus 6:14-23, meal offering;

(iii) Leviticus 6:24-30, sin offering;

(iv) Leviticus 7:1-7 with appendix, Leviticus 7:8-10, dealing with that part of the sacrifices which belongs to the priest (see under 1., above), guilt offering;

(v) Leviticus 7:11-21, peace offerings. With this is found connected in Leviticus 7:22-27 the prohibition of the use of the fat or the blood, and in Leviticus 7:28-36, the laws concerning the wave-breast and the heave-thigh. We have accordingly at once twelve of these laws (compare on Ex 25:1 through 30:10 in article on Exodus, II., 2., (5) and on Ezekiel, I, 2, 5)). But even apart from this we have no right to ascribe Lev 1 through 5 and 6:1 through 7:21, on the ground that they are duplicates, to different authors.

That there is a difference between these two accounts is proved, not only by the fact that the first set of laws from Lev 1 through 5 is addressed to all the Israelites (compare Leviticus 1:2; Leviticus 4:2), and the second set Leviticus 6:8; Leviticus 7:21 to Aaron and his sons (compare Leviticus 6:9, Leviticus 6:25); but the second set has also in content a number of altogether different viewpoints as compared with the first set, so that the same author found himself induced or compelled to write both sets. On the other hand, the fact that both have the same author is evident from the very close connection between the two sections. In addition to the fact that both make mention of all five kinds of sacrifices, we can yet compare Leviticus 3:5 with Leviticus 6:22 (fat pieces of the peace offering over the burnt sacrifices upon the pieces of wood); and, further, the express reference of Leviticus 6:17 to Lev 4, while Leviticus 6:30 presupposes the distinct separation of the sin offering, the blood of which is brought into the tent of meeting, from the other sacrifices, as these are given in Leviticus 4:3 ff, 13 ff over against Leviticus 4:22 ff, 27 ff. Leviticus 4, with its reference to the peace offerings (Leviticus 4:10, Leviticus 4:26, Leviticus 4:31, Leviticus 4:35), is again most closely connected with Lev 3. We must accordingly insist that the whole account is most intimately interwoven. Over against this, the omission within the first set, Lev 1 through 5, in Leviticus 5:14-16, of the ritual for the peace offering, is sufficiently explained only by the fact that this ritual was to be used in the second set (6:8 through 7:21), and here for the first time only in Leviticus 7:1-15, which fact again speaks for the same author for both sets and against the supposition that they were merely mechanically united by a redactor. The fact that the second set 6:8 through 7:21 has a different order from that of Lev 1 through 5, by uniting the sin offering immediately with the meal offering (Leviticus 6:24 ff with Leviticus 6:14-23), is probably on account of the similar ordinances in Leviticus 7:9 and Leviticus 7:19 (manner of eating the meal offering and the sin offering). On the other hand, the position of the peace offering at the close of the second set (Leviticus 7:11 ff) furnished the possibility of giving to the piece of the entire pericope embraced in Leviticus 7:22-27, Leviticus 7:28-36 a suitable conclusion; since Leviticus 7:22 ff (prohibition of the eating of the fat and the blood), connected with Leviticus 7:19 ff, contained in Leviticus 7:28 ff an ordinance that pertained to the peace offering (heave-breast and wave-thigh). At any rate, these last two pieces are to be regarded separately from the rest, since they are no longer addressed to the priests, as is 6:8 through 7:21, but to all Israel; compare Leviticus 7:23, Leviticus 7:29. On some other data less intimately connected with the matter, compare above under 1.

(b) Consecration of priests and related matters (Lev 8 through 10):

In this pericope, as in the following, down to Lev 17 inclusive, but especially from Lev 11 on, the principle of division on the basis of the number four predominates, in many cases in the details, too; so that this could scarcely be regarded as an accidental feature (compare also the history of Abraham in Gen 12 through 26; further, in Exodus 35:4 through Exodus 40:38; and in Exodus, II., 2., (7); Lev 16, under Day Of Atonement; Dt 12 through 26, too, is probably to be divided on this principle, even to the minutest details (compare finally Lev 21 through 22:16; Leviticus 22:17-30; Lev 23 f and 26).

(i) Leviticus 8, treating of the first seven days of the consecration of the priests: The outline is found in Leviticus 8:2, namely Aaron, the sacred garments, the anointing oil, the bullock of the sin offering, two rams, unleavened bread (compare Leviticus 8:6, Leviticus 8:7 ff, 10 ff, 14 ff, 18 ff, 22 ff, 26 ff).

(ii) Leviticus 9 the first sacrifices of Aaron and his sons on the 8th day (Leviticus 9:2-4 contain the outline, after the manner of Leviticus 8:2; compare Leviticus 9:7 ff, 11 ff, the sin offering and the burnt offering of Aaron, with Leviticus 9:2; also Leviticus 9:15-18, treating of what the people brought for the sacrifices, with Leviticus 9:3 f; but it is to be noticed that the meal offering and the peace offering (Leviticus 9:17, Leviticus 9:18) are given in inverted order from that found in Leviticus 9:3 f). Here too we find the number seven, if we add the burnt offering for the morning (Leviticus 9:17).

(iii) Leviticus 10:1-7, the sin of Nadab and Abihu and their punishment by death;

(iv) Leviticus 10:8-20, ordinances concerning the priests, occasioned by 8:1 through 10:7 and provided with a new superscription in Leviticus 10:8, namely Leviticus 10:8, dealing with the prohibition of the use of wine and intoxicants; Leviticus 10:9 f, distinction between the holy and the unholy; Leviticus 10:12-15, the eating of the sacred oblations; Leviticus 10:16-20, the treatment of the goat for the sin offering.

(c) Laws Concerning the Clean and Unclean (Lev 11 through 15):

(i) Lev 11, treating of clean and unclean animals. The outline of the chief contents is found in Leviticus 11:46 with a free transposition of one number. There are accordingly four pieces, namely, Leviticus 11:2-8, quadrupeds; Leviticus 11:9-12, water animals; Leviticus 11:13-23, birds (with an appendix, treating of contact with the unclean, Leviticus 11:24-28, which give a summary of the animals mentioned (see under 1.); 11:29-45, the small animals upon the earth (again in four subdivisions, namely,

(ii) Leviticus 12:1-8 treats of women in confinement, also in four pieces (Leviticus 12:2-4, birth of a male child; Leviticus 12:5, birth of a female child; Leviticus 12:6 f, purification ceremony; Leviticus 12:8, ordinances in case of extreme poverty). These parts are not joined logically, but in a rather external manner.

(iii) The passage 13:1 through 14:53, containing the laws of leprosy, with the subscription in Leviticus 14:54 ff. (Because seven points are to be enumerated, Leviticus 14:55 (garments and houses), this is not as in its further exposition separated from the other laws and is placed in their midst.) The exposition contains four pieces, namely, 13:1-44, leprosy on human beings (with concluding Leviticus 13:45 f), with seven subdivisions, of which the first five longer ones are constructed along fairly parallel lines, and again can be divided into four sub-subdivisions, namely, Leviticus 13:1-8; Leviticus 1:9-17; 1:18-23; 1:24-28; 1:29-37; 1:38 f; 1:40-44. The significance of the number seven for the structure (see (2), (b), i, above) is akin to that found, e.g., in Exodus 24:18b through 31:18 (see Exodus, II., 2., (5)); Lev 8; 9 (see above); Lev 23; 25; and 27; and possibly Leviticus 26:3-13, 14-39 (see below); finally, the whole Book of Exodus is divided into seven parts (see Exodus, II., 1.). Leviticus 13:47-59, leprosy in connection with garments, with four subdivisions, namely Leviticus 13:47-50; Leviticus 13:51 f; Leviticus 13:53 f; Leviticus 13:55 ff. The last subdivision can again be readily separated into four sub-subdivisions, namely, Leviticus 13:55; Leviticus 13:56; Leviticus 13:57; Leviticus 13:58; 14:1-32, purifications (Leviticus 14:2 being a special superscription), with 4 subdivisions, namely,

  • (i) Leviticus 14:2-3, the leper before the priest;
  • (ii) Leviticus 14:3-9, the purification ceremonies on the first seven days, again divided into 4 sub-subdivisions: Leviticus 14:3 f; Leviticus 14:5-7; Leviticus 14:8; Leviticus 14:9;
  • (iii) Leviticus 14:10-20, the ceremony of the eighth day (4 sacrifices, namely Leviticus 14:12-18, guilt offering; Leviticus 14:19, sin offering; Leviticus 14:19, burnt offering; Leviticus 14:20, meal offering; in the 4 sacrifices (5:12 through 6:7) there are again 4 different actions: Leviticus 14:14; Leviticus 14:15 f; Leviticus 14:17; Leviticus 14:18;
  • (iv) Leviticus 14:21-32 (in cases of poverty) 14:33-53, leprosy in houses, with four subdivisions: Leviticus 14:33-35; Leviticus 14:36-38; Leviticus 14:39-42; Leviticus 14:43-53.

(iv) Leviticus 15, sickness or natural issues, with 4 subdivisions, namely, Leviticus 15:1-15, checked or running issues together with their purification (Leviticus 15:3-12 contain 12 laws: Leviticus 15:3; Leviticus 15:4; Leviticus 15:4; Leviticus 15:5; Leviticus 15:6; Leviticus 15:7; Leviticus 15:8; Leviticus 15:9; Leviticus 15:10; Leviticus 15:10; Leviticus 15:11; Leviticus 15:12); Leviticus 15:16-18, issue of seed; Leviticus 15:19-24, periods; Leviticus 15:25-30, other flows of blood and their purification. Leviticus 15:1-15 and Leviticus 15:16-18 refer to men, and Leviticus 15:19-24 and Leviticus 15:25-30 to women; and in addition to these implied suggestions, as Leviticus 15:1-15 and Leviticus 15:25-30 to dealing with abnormal issues and their purification ceremonies, Leviticus 15:16-18 and Leviticus 15:19-24 deal with normal issues.

(d) The Day of Atonement (Lev 16):

See IV., 1., (2), 2., and under Day Of Atonement.


(e) Uses and significance of the blood of sacrifices (Lev 17):

(i) Leviticus 17:3-7, only one place for killing the Sacrifices and the rejection of all foreign cultures;

(ii) Leviticus 17:8, Leviticus 17:9, only one place for sacrificing;

(iii) Leviticus 17:10-14, prohibitive of eating the blood;

(iv) Leviticus 17:15, pertaining to carcasses of animals found dead or which have been torn by wild beasts.

Here the form and the contents of the section have been brought into perfect harmony by the author. Leviticus 17:3 ff, 8 ff, 10 ff, 13 ff begin with same words, and each contains a similar formula in reference to the punishment, while logically Leviticus 17:10 ff and 13 ff are evidently only subdivisions of the third part in Leviticus 17:10-14, which treats of the prohibition of eating blood. In the fourth division, again, while in substance connected with the rest, there is lacking the formal agreement with the first three divisions.

(f) (g) (Lev 18 through 20; 21):

These naturally fall each into 2 parts. Leviticus 18 through 20 contain

(i) Lev 18 f, religious and ethical laws;

(ii) Lev 20, laws dealing with punishments.

(f i) Religious and ethical laws (Lev 18 f):

(a) Leviticus 18:

Ordinances with reference to marriage and chastity. Leviticus 18:1-5, introductory; Leviticus 18:6-18, prohibition of marriage between kindred of blood; Leviticus 18:19-23, prohibition of other sexual sins; Leviticus 18:24-30, warnings.

The subdivision can perhaps be divided into 10 subordinate parts, if it is permitted to combine the different degrees of relationship mentioned in Leviticus 18:12-14 (namely, Leviticus 18:7, Leviticus 18:8, Leviticus 18:9, Leviticus 18:10, Leviticus 18:11, Leviticus 18:12-14, Leviticus 18:15, Leviticus 18:16, Leviticus 18:17, Leviticus 18:18). Since it, of itself, manifestly consists of 5 ordinances (Leviticus 18:19, Leviticus 18:20, Leviticus 18:21, Leviticus 18:22, Leviticus 18:23), this whole section, if we are permitted to divide it into 5 commandments (Leviticus 18:2, Leviticus 18:3, Leviticus 18:3, Leviticus 18:4, Leviticus 18:5) and also into 5 (Leviticus 18:24 f, 26-28, 29, 30a, 30b), would contain 5 X 5 words; but this is uncertain.

(b) Leviticus 19:

Various commands of the deepest significance. In order to discover the divisions of this chapter we must note the characteristic formula, “I am YHWH, your Gods” or a similar expression, which often appears at the beginning and at the end of certain divisions, e.g. in series (1) (9) and (10), but which in the middle series appears in each case only once, and which in all the series is found also at the conclusion.

In this way we can compute 10 tetralogues. Thus after the superscription in Leviticus 19:2 containing a summary, we have

(i) Leviticus 19:3, Leviticus 19:1 (Leviticus 19:3, Leviticus 19:3, Leviticus 19:4, Leviticus 19:4);

(ii) Leviticus 19:5-10 (Leviticus 19:5 f, 7 f, 9, 10);

(iii) Leviticus 19:11 f (Leviticus 19:11, Leviticus 19:11(?), 11b(?), 12);

(iv) Leviticus 19:13 f (Leviticus 19:13, Leviticus 19:13, Leviticus 19:14, Leviticus 19:14);

(v) Leviticus 19:15 f (15a, 15b, 16a, 16b);

(vi) Leviticus 19:17 f (Leviticus 19:17, Leviticus 19:17, Leviticus 19:18, Leviticus 19:18);

(vii) Leviticus 19:19-25 (Leviticus 19:19, Leviticus 19:19, Leviticus 19:20-22, Leviticus 19:23-25);

(viii) Leviticus 19:26-28 (Leviticus 19:26, Leviticus 19:26, Leviticus 19:27, Leviticus 19:28),

(ix) Leviticus 19:29-32 ([[Leviticus 19:29, Leviticus 19:30, Leviticus 19:31, Leviticus 19:32);

(x) Leviticus 19:33-36 (Leviticus 19:33, Leviticus 19:14, Leviticus 19:35, Leviticus 19:36); Leviticus 19:37 constitutes the conclusion of the whole